By Professor Donald S. Detwiler

This version of the background of Germany contains the good watershed of 1989-90 and its aftermath. With 12 maps, a chronology of occasions and an up to date bibliographical essay, it presents an intensive advent to German historical past from antiquity to the current.

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If control of the church organization in Germany and northern Italy, particularly the appointment of bishops, was vital to the emperor, however, it was regarded by the ecclesiastical reformers — who took over the papacy in the second third of the eleventh century — as being absolutely essential to the head of the church in Rome.  Its significance can be suggested by a comparison with the Reformation in the sixteenth century: the reformers of the eleventh century were no less intent than those of the sixteenth on correcting widespread abuses throughout the church, but unlike the later Protestants, they succeeded in gaining control of the papacy.

A man of extraordinary culture, energy, and ability — called by a contemporary chronicler stupor mundi (the wonder of the world), by Nietzsche the first European, and by many historians the first modern ruler — Frederick established in Sicily and southern Italy something very much like a modern, centrally governed kingdom with an efficient bureaucracy.  Frederick II was not concerned with continuing the work of his forefathers in Germany, but merely with retaining sufficient control there to assure support in the form of men and money for his Italian and Mediterranean policies.

By the time of Conrad's death in 1152, Germany had fallen into so serious a state of disarray that the princes readily accepted as successor his promising nephew, Duke Frederick of Swabia; on his deathbed he had designated Frederick, who had accompanied him on the unsuccessful Second Crusade, rather than his surviving son, a child of six.  This was illustrated and dramatized by the fall of Henry the Lion, the Welf duke of both Saxony and Bavaria.  They might be very important in individual instances, but they could not be permitted to take precedence over (or jeopardize) Frederick's fundamental strategy of restructuring the gravely weakened realm as a feudal monarchy strongly sustained by a loyal caste of imperial princes — loyal because the feudal reorganization of Germany and the special prerogatives accorded them under the new system gave them every reason to support it and oppose anyone, such as Henry the Lion, who sought to disrupt it.

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