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This also did not happen in the Ottoman lands. The development of bourgeois state forms in Europe created the political conditions for industrialisation from the eighteenth century onwards. Comparable conditions were not created in the Ottoman lands. There are no simple explanations for this. The causes of Ottoman decline cannot be reduced to the logic of oriental despotism or to the absence of a rational economic ethic in Islam. Nor does it help to see the empire as eclipsed by capitalism. These issues must figure in the explanation.

They eliminated all aristocratic opposition in conquered lands. State administration was put entirely in the hands of a slave bureaucracy drawn from Christian minorities and trained and educated specifically for official status. The ulema were trusted with the administration of justice within a framework oflslamic law. The composition of the military class of the Ottoman state - the askeri was defined by the sultan and the effective military arm of it, the janisseries, owed their allegiance directly to him.

The forces that shaped European development were on the whole internal, springing, to start with, from the Greco-Roman tradition and Christianity. By comparison Islamic development or stagnation was greatly influenced not merely by the conservatism of theologians but also by formidable external factors. Gibb and Bowen (1969) emphasise this same point in a discussion of madrasa education in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Corrupt teaching appointments to Al-Azhar university and utterly uncommitted students were just two aspects of a general decline.

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